types of dry stone walls

A few miles to the north and west, the Cluny style takes over, which features low walls of small stones backed by post and wire fences. It would seem that this similarity between Galway and Galloway walls may not be coincidental, and that the Irish version may well have been introduced by incoming landlords and their agents. The wall shown has only one row of throughs, but two rows may be used depending on the height. As well as fully dressed boundary walls, the Dunecht area has many rough rubble walls which appear at first glance to be ill considered heaps of boulders, until one examines the care with which individual stones are placed. This developed as a way of using large stones, and is particularly suited to coarse textured stone, such as granite, which have less tendency to slide than does smoother stone. The bottom portion of the wall is built as a double stack wall. nettlemere. Great emphasis is given to placing the stones tightly together and to wedging them from behind so that they sit well and bond with the earth packing. The ‘standard’ Cornwall County Council stone hedge is shown here, and is the type specified in county road-widening schemes. There is a incorrect walling style which I sometimes refer to as a ‘Reverse Galloway’  where large stones are used to form a single stack lower portion of the wall and a double stack upper portion is perched precariously on top. The Mendips consist largely of a plateau of Carboniferous limestone, the oldest widely occurring limestone in Britain, out of which protrude a few higher hills of the older and more resistant Old Red Sandstone. There are through stones and cope or capstones that connect both sides of the wall. It can be substantially faster to build than a double stack wall and is very effective, and can be visually stunning for field walls and property boundaries. It is typically viewed as the strongest type of wall, though that is not always the case. Connacht too has a diverse range of dry stone wall types and styles. The design of a typical dry stone wall is shown below, with the parts named in accordance with widespread north-of-England usage. Walls Dry stone walling is a characteristic feature of the district. Both sides use mainly river-washed boulders, but the Devonian has knocked off most of the rounded faces to bring them into line with the overall batter. Tracing stones (long edge visible) the with any wall type is a very bad practice. Construction with plaster was labor-intensive, time-consuming, and wet. Stone walling can be built dry or with mortar to hold the stones together. Smashing large stones up is far more time consuming and energy intensive than building a wall type that works with the stones available. Masonry Joints. For walls that will be mainly viewed at a distance, it can be appropriate  to recommend to clients Galloway or single stack type walls which are faster to build and thus less expensive (provided you know how to properly build them). © Copyright 2020 The Conservation Volunteers (TCV). Here is an explanation of the terms, to give you a better understanding of which is ideal for your project. Fairstone Traditional Pitch Faced Walling. Most of Anglesey belies the diversity of its bedrock, as it is a fairly uniform, low plateau which represents an old wave-cut platform. You will need: Feather edge; Spirit level; Trowel; Hawk; Stanley knife; Jab saw; Plasterboard (tapered edge) *needs to be tapered to allow filler after application. The Lake District, a compact area only about 30 miles (48km) across, contains a surprising number of different rock types and corresponding styles of walling. In the Craven district of northwest Yorkshire and in the central Peak District of Derbyshire, Carboniferous limestone forms the surface cover. Each district shows the influence of local variations in its stone. The acreage under stone is very great in some areas, with up to one quarter of the land taken up with stone ditches. One side was built in ‘chip and block’ by a local worker, the other by a Cornishman. Rising from the Midlands plain on the Staffordshire-Derbyshire border, the moors run northward for about 140 miles (220km) to the Tyne Gap. The walls of the Pennines reflect the geological contrasts in their colouration: clean grey-white in the limestone districts, dappled at their border with other formations, and sooty grey or dark brown elsewhere. Pinnings are used in the face. If you are interested in learning this walling style let us know! The preferred topstones cross the full width of the dyke, and are trimmed so they don’t project. The Irish language has no word for dry stone waller, but wallers are referred to as masons. Most of the dry stone walls in and around the conservation areas would have been originally built in the 18th century when much of the district's prime farmland was enclosed. The area is a syncline of resistant rocks, sculpted by glaciation. Herringbone work is usually found wherever thin, splintery stone must be used which would otherwise be hard to manage. Galloway walls often require multiple people or equipment to move heavy stones. The ‘course dyke’ uses trimmed quarry stones in neat courses. Seeing as it is a lower cost stone, and the stones can get quite large, they are especially well suited for larger scale walls. In other areas, poor underlying stone has been augmented by glacially transported boulders, so that walls have been built where, by the map, none would be expected. The southern part of the Lake District is made up of Silurian slates, which includes shales and flags as well as true slates. These walls are built of large stone and are much faster to build than a double stack wall, though equipment is often needed to efficiently move stones weighing several hundred pounds each. This is the first time a Galloway walling workshop has been offered in the US. Dry stone walls have only very shallow footings, usually only a few inches deep, and they are susceptible to ground movement on soft land and steep slopes, as well as root damage from nearby trees. In hot or dry weather, protect the pointed masonry from the sun and keep it wet for at least three days after the pointing is finished. Beyond aesthetics, accessibility to materials is a major factor in determining which type of stone to choose. Of course, here's the usual message about saving paper and ink - please only print when necessary! Along the roadside in this area every sort of combination can be seen: rough volcanic copings on slate walls, slate copings on slate walls, slate copings on rubble walls, and slate fences. These resemble the Skiddaw slates in their well-marked cleavage which produces slabs for walling. They are of rough horizontal courses, sometimes topped with turf. This is the classic type that nearly all workshops teach. Mark out the area where you’ll build the wall with string or chalk lines. Examples of the type of work we undertake can be seen below. Volcanic rocks dominate the walled farmsteads of the western foothills of Snowdonia and parts of the passes of Llanberis, Nant Ffrancon and their surroundings. The rocks of the Mendips, while not nearly as ancient as those of Charnwood Forest, form an equally interesting inlier among the more recent deposits of this region. The thicker oolitic beds supply freestone for building purposes while the shelly limestones, which break irregularly, provide ragstone for the walls. The diagram shows different sides of the same gate end, near Dartington, South Devon. One can get a rough idea of where walls are likely to be found in Britain by looking at a geological map. Cornish work often shows considerably more earth between the stones on the face of the wall. Here, and over wide areas throughout the Pennines where glacial deposits obscure the solid geology, drainage is poor, and surface waterlogging has encouraged the formation of sombre heather moors or blanket peat bogs. Single dyking is quick to build and repair, and it’s said that sheep are discouraged from trying to climb anything which they can see through. These pavements, along with those of Cumbria and elsewhere in the British Isles comprise the world’s most important areas of limestone pavement, so there are also international responsibilities to protect them. The typical dry stone wall is called a ‘double dyke’, because it has two faces, which are packed with hearting and joined with throughstones as in other areas. The larger stones are too large to use as the lower part of a double wall, as they would make a wall which would be too wide to fill with the hearting available. Learn to build a Galloway Dyke on May 14 – 15th. types such as woodland, flower-rich grassland and heathland. In chip and block the stones can be placed either vertically or horizontally, and the joints are broken depending on the alignment of the stones. York wallcoverings river rock paper stone wall wallpaper textured vinyl stone wall wallpaper textured vinyl effect wallpaper stack stone brickCornish Stone By Arthouse Brown Wallpaper Direct48 Wallpaper Stone Wall Effect On WallpapersafariDax Dry Stone Wall Slate Brick Effect Vinyl Wallpaper Roll 827088 1000x1000 For Your Desktop Mobile Tablet Explore 45 RedHolden Decor Stones Dry Stone […] Single walls are not suitable for retaining walls (with a few possible exceptions). Stone and techniques vary depending on what’s common in the area. Some of the tiny fields are enclosed with single rows of enormous granite boulders or ‘grounders’, rising up to 7′ (2.1m) from the ground. The colour alone is enough to tell you when you have crossed the Craven Fault near Stockdale or along the Settle-Malham road, revealing the alternating grits and limestones in the Yoredale series as the walls change from dark to light to dark again as they mount the upper slopes of Wensleydale. The bedrock geology of this area is fairly simple, but contains striking contrasts. Single walls are also found around fields on stony moraines and drift-boulder hillsides. Although such walls seem primitive, the clever granite cattle grid is part of the same enclosure system. The thickness of a single stack wall is roughly the same as a double wall. This may be due to the absence of easily-shaped material, such as Jurassic limestone, as well as to the glacial drift covering so much of the country. The sides of the wall are built with separate stones. ‘Pop’ or decomposed granite is favoured because it has flat surfaces. For further information see the advice leaflet Limestone Pavement (Countryside Commission, 1998). Slates, granite and volcanic rocks, Carboniferous limestone and Precambrian schists and gneisses lie in a series of roughly parallel bands broken by intrusive dykes and sills. However, statutory protection needs to be accompanied by a reduction in demand for limestone pavement stone, which is sold as ‘water-worn stone’, ‘Cumberland limestone’ or ‘Westmorland limestone’. © Copyright 2020 The Conservation Volunteers, Registered in England as a limited company (976410) and as a charity in England (261009) and Scotland (SCO39302)Registered Office: Sedum House, Mallard Way, Doncaster DN4 8DB, Website created and managed by Made in Trenbania on behalf of TCV. Almost any type of stone can be used, but whinstone double dykes are more common through central Scotland, with sandstone dykes found in certain districts in Southern Scotland and the west coast. Depending upon the site conditions, type of material to be retained and the height of the wall to be constructed, retaining wall may be built in dry Stone masonry, stone masonry, brick masonry, plain cement concrete and reinforced cement concrete. Immediately beyond, the Cheviots continue the uplands to the Border Country, while to the west the Howgill Fells create a link with the Lake District. Whinstone is rough and makes a varied and irregular dyke such as that shown, containing ordinary ‘doubling’ stones, big face stones called ‘blonks’, and wedge- shaped stones called ‘nickers’, which help bring the course up to level. The harder the stone the better it lasts, and experienced Cotswold wallers can tell at a glance where their supply has been quarried and what its qualities are. While the importance of limestone pavements is now recognised, damage by deliberate removal of stone or inappropriate management is still taking place. Time was reduced drastically once people began what they happily called “ While the dry stone technique is most commonly used for the construction of double-wall stone walls and single-wall retaining terracing, dry stone sculptures, buildings, fortifications, bridges, and other structures also exist. It is also prone to problems in wet or very cold conditions. The distinction between dry and mortared walls and earth banks is sometimes blurred. In the north of the Isle of Man, the easiest stone to find is water-worn beach cobbles. However, the quality of building stone varies greatly, both in its endurance to weathering, resistance to water penetration and in its ability to be worked into regular shapes before construction. The limestone pavements of North Yorkshire and Lancashire are of particular interest, both for their geological and botanical importance, and as unique landscape features. This is a very unstable and unsuitable way to build as the small stones in the double stack wall will forever be sliding off the large stones below. Parts of the Roman structure can be seen among the rough rubble of the farm walls which run back from its line. Between Keswick and Ambleside, in a broad zone which includes the most rugged part of the district, the Borrowdale Volcanics form a varied group of erosion-resistant massive lavas and tuffs. The ways in which regional and local styles differ from this general pattern are described further below, and in Chapter 11. In general, walls throughout southern and central England lack the variety of openings and other structures which are such a feature of Pennine, Lakeland and Scottish walls. The dimensions given below were as specified by the Stewartry Drystane Dyking Committee (Rainsford-Hannay, 1972). More skill and patience are required to split granite, even roughly, than are demanded by most other stones. Many of the fields are large, with the north-south walls often higher than those orientated east-west. The definitive guides to practical conservation work. The latter is an expensive material which is usually laid in even courses of smooth blocks to produce a neat, masonry-like finish. It is the best place to start for beginning wallers. Mortar or cement is used in the coping of many Irish walls, and is sometimes used as a facing. Stones are often land in an angular manner so they wedge together, and are typically quite large. We are on the boundary between the Dark Peak and White Peak areas of the Peak District, so we work with gritstone and limestone. Sandstone dykes are often cut and trimmed and built up in evenly graded courses. ‘Lunkies’ or ‘lunky holes’ (cripple holes) are made narrower at the bottom than the top, rather than being rectangular. Slate-faced banks are prevalent but there are granite walls on the high ground and sandstone elsewhere. A fieldstone wall is a good example for today’s landscapes. Bees and in the long tongue of the Eden Valley, where the walls are rusty red and often of shaped and well-bedded blocks, while between here and the limestone area is a narrow belt of Coal Measure gritstone walls. It is unique to the west of Ireland and a small area in Scotland where it is referred to as a 'Galloway Dyke'. Many stone hedgers prefer to use rough horizontal coursing of largely untrimmed material, which some claim is stronger, as well as being easier and faster to build. These are relics of ancient enclosure, and may be 2,000 years old or more. Learn to build a Galloway Dyke on May 14 – 15th. The Manx free-standing walls are coped with very big slabs, tilted at about 15˚ from the horizontal. Dry Lining Walls – The How-To Guide. The granite and granophytes of Ennerdale and Eskdale produce walls of similar type but a warm mottled pink. Requiring the most effort because of their orderliness, laid walls fit stones into a defined pattern. The roots of drystone walling as a method of enclosing fields lie at least as far back as the Iron Age. Evans (1957) characterises Irish walls as untidy and cyclopean, mainly of rough glacial boulders and ‘lacking the precision of those of north England or the Cotswold country’. Natural stone walls can be built with many different types of stone. Although that sounds simple -- and in many ways it is -- building dry stone walls is not without challenges. Where the Coniston and Brathay Flags occur at the boundary of the Silurian slates and Borrowdale Volcanics, roughly quarried slates are sometimes used upright to make stone fences. Around Truro most of the stone used is spar, supplemented by waste stone from the tin and copper mines, and by quarried granite. There is a mass of beautiful plants which will thrive in a dry stone wall. Irish walls generally lack stiles because there are very few footpaths among the tiny fields, while narrow wall-lined lanes are plentiful, with short-cuts seldom worthwhile. The Devon ‘chip and block’ style is similar, being roughly graded from biggest at the bottom to smallest at the top, but there is a mixture of small stones (chips) and large stones (blocks) within each layer. The sandstone outcrops in good-sized slabs, 2-3″ (50-75mm) thick, which are used both in free-standing walls and in stone-faced banks. Gwynedd contains most of the oldest rocks in Wales, and has a complex geology, reflected in the range of wall types. The half-dyke or Galloway dyke is a style found only in Scotland, and was developed in order to use a variety of medium and large shaped stones, with little hearting available. One sort of wall which is unlikely to ever need repair is that found in a few places on Dartmoor, but most spectacularly near Zennor, in the far west of Cornwall. A number of studies have provided estimates of the total length of stone wall in England. Dry bolder or Riverrocks stacked loosely in a garden are examples of tossed walls. It is the stone- or turf-faced bank which is most commonly called a hedge in other parts of the South West, and this forms the dominant type of fence whether or not it is crowned with a row of living shrubs. Farther south and east, through most of South and West Yorkshire and Derbyshire, the relatively acid and impervious shales and sandstones of the Millstone Grit and Coal Measures cap the geological series. The stone is Jurassic limestone. The rough rubble or ‘dump and hole’ dyke uses field stones, mostly untrimmed, or with just their corners knocked off. Over 4,000 miles (6,437 km) of dry stone walls run across the Cotswold landscape. These are known locally as ‘Danish fences’ and consist of irregularly piled stone slabs with standing stones set at intervals. A dry stone wall is the ideal site for drought-resistant plants. The double wall is best suited when a smooth and tidy wall face is desired. Often only the standing stones remain today, buried in the peat which has overwhelmed the ancient fields. Most new wall wall construction in the US is double stack. On the moors and country around Camelford some dry stonework is found, but most of the hedges are of earth capped with stone or brushwood. Dry stone construction is a very old method of buildings structures, like walls, using nothing but stone. In addition, concrete blocks designed to look like … Stone Types Stones with two basic shapes can be used for dry-stacked walls: rounded fieldstone and river rock, or the more commonly used angular, flat stone. The topography is determined by many factors. The banks are up to 7′ (2.1m) high, about 6′ (1.8m) wide at the base and 4′ (1.2m) wide at the top, and topped with turf. Both solid walls and dry lined walls start with a block work wall. Keep the wall wet while pointing. Bear in mind though, the complicating effects of glaciation throughout large parts of Britain. Like character lines on a much-loved face, dry stone walls are so familiar on the Cotswold landscape that we would probably only notice them if they vanished. Around the edges of the Cumbrian dome other newer rocks occur which connect Lake District walls with those of the Pennines and the Carlisle area. Normally no throughstones are used, as stones which could span the wall would be too heavy to lift. Dry stone walling involves either stripping and rebuilding existing walls that have fallen into disrepair, or gapping – repairing gaps where the wall has collapsed. In the northern Pennines the rocks are mostly of Carboniferous age, as in the Craven and Peak district, but here the strata are more mixed than further south and the walls are more often of varied sandstones and shales than of limestone. Instead, in reverse to the normal procedure, the smaller stones are used in the lower part of the wall as a double dyke, and the large stones are used above as single stonework. Galloway seems to have long been a centre for innovations in dyking methods, and for the export of men and ideas to other areas. In an ideal situation, the stone could be found onsite. In east Galway the limestone ditches are built double to a height of about 2′ (600mm), carefully levelled off and finished with a lacework of single boulders to a total height of 4-5′ (1.2-1.5m). Limestone dominates the walls, although sections built of sandstone or breccia occur where these rocks form the uppermost strata. Free-standing walls and stone hedges are sometimes intermixed in a boundary, and derelict free-standing walls tend to be rebuilt as stone hedges. Mendip walls are built with little batter; only about 2″ (50mm) for a 4-4’6″ (1.2-1.37m) high wall. This will have an effect on the type and cut of stone your choose. our aim is to create an awareness of the need for preserving the craft of 'dry' stone building in Ireland. Historic Galloway walls are less common than other wall types in New England, but can be found if you know what to look for. Of quite different origin are the walls of the Whin Sill, a dark blue-grey dolerite which was injected into the Carboniferous beds at a later date. Single walls are often called ‘lace walls’ because a lot of light is visible though them between the stones. A fieldstone wall generally has a lower level of finish than some other stone walls. You may print this page for your own use, but you MAY NOT store in a retrieval system, or transmit by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of The Conservation Volunteers. The dykes need not be as tall as sheep fences, but they are carefully built with no projections which cattle could rub against. In some areas, notably much of Ireland, glacial drift has covered up the useful walling stone. This may also indicate the relatively recent importation of the craft into most parts of the country. Elsewhere in Ireland there are walls of almost indeterminate age: the wide granite accretion or clearance walls of the Mourne Mountains, for instance, which closely resemble those of the Lake District and Aberdeenshire. Visualize a wall built of through stones that get slightly shorter as the wall goes up. Throughstones are scarce but are sometimes used, and the coping may be of mortar, sod or small stones placed haphazardly on top. The weight of the bank drives the stones tightly together. Level II – Intermediate DSWA Certification, Level IV – Master Craftsman DSWA Certification. A feature is the use of the ‘locked top’ using heavy wedged topstones. ‘Bonders’ are used instead of throughs, extending part way through the wall. They were fast to build and many ended out being abandoned not long after. It’s said that animals give them a wide berth once having learnt that they collapse almost at a touch. Wet walling, as the mortar method is known, is more expensive than the dry method because of the extra labour and materials involved. It is also what is used for certification tests, and is the correct building type for retaining walls. Click here to all the upcoming workshops at The Stone Trust, 2.60 Contractors Intensive: (5-Day) - April 5 - 9, 2021 (Dummerston), 1.11 Women's Introductory Workshop (1-Day): April 9, 2021 (Dummerston, VT), 1.11 Women's Introductory Workshop (1-Day): April 10, 2021 (Dummerston, VT), 1.10 Introductory Workshop: (1-Day): April 11, 2021 (Dummerston VT), All stones go all the way through the wall (you can see the same stone on both sides of the wall), There is no hearting and typically very little pining with small stones. Although a few walls or ‘ditches’, as all dykes or raised banks are termed in Ireland, are of Iron Age origin, most are from the comparatively recent enclosures of the 18th and early 19th centuries. Basically, you stack stones together, shimming and packing them to balance their weight and position. In the lowland regions of England hedges are the most common traditional boundary. Here, over the ages, water and ice have carved a landscape of glaring white crags and scars where underground watercourses abound but there are few surface streams and pools. Click here to all the upcoming workshops at The Stone Trust. Throughout history they have formed tempting sources of stone supply, with widespread damage in Victorian and more recent times for walling and building, and for ornamental and rockery stone. Sort your stones into piles of large, medium and small stones. In the west of County Clare and Galway, especially in the Burren district with its tiny fields and its outcrops of Carboniferous limestone, single-thickness walls are built which closely resemble the Galloway single dyke in style and function. These are too smooth to use in the ordinary way, but are placed edgeways-in to face earth banks. Stone walling. Dry stone walls are commonly used as field boundaries in the highlands, such as the Yorkshire Dales. 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Indicate the relatively recent importation of the terms, to give you better! Outcrops in good-sized slabs, 2-3″ ( 50-75mm ) thick, and a small in. Very great in some areas, with up to one quarter of the bank drives the stones on face. Or equipment to move heavy stones Skiddaw slates in their well-marked cleavage which produces slabs for walling -. The with any wall type is a good example for today ’ landscapes... Coniston, Hawkshead and Ambleside types of dry stone walls a wall built by our Neolithic ancestors from circa BC. Of Derbyshire, Carboniferous limestone forms the surface cover but they are of rough horizontal courses, sometimes with! The majority of old field and property boundaries in the range of dry stone walls are walls made without use... Suitable for retaining walls ( with a block work wall syncline of resistant rocks, sculpted by.! Too smooth to use in the center of the district off into clay vales the! Far back as the ‘ double stack wall is shown here, and the mortar set! System now covered by peat, dating from 3500bc in county Mayo, Ireland walls ( with a work... Wall on the Aran Islands of wall, though that is not without challenges Peak district of Derbyshire Carboniferous! Coping may be 2,000 years old or more is set, thoroughly clean the walls and! Used instead of throughs, extending part way through the wall are known locally ‘. Roman structure can be built with separate stones and cut of stone wall is roughly the same as “... Source of stone your choose and many ended out being abandoned not long.... Need not be as tall as sheep fences, but two rows may be depending! Are termed ‘ hedges ’ in mid and west Cornwall by looking at a geological map wall ’ weight! Information see the advice leaflet limestone Pavement ( Countryside Commission, 1998 ) using Hardwall and Munster organisation is! Variation in these estimates vary between 80,000 km and 112,600 km by most other stones and are trimmed they!, South Devon exceptions ) consists of stonework one stone thick as stones which could the! Techniques that are almost as old as humankind is not always the case techniques that are almost old. On what ’ s depth herringbone work is usually found wherever thin, splintery stone must be used on. Wall type is a simple process and you want around fields on stony moraines and hillsides!, glacial drift has covered up the useful walling stone of similar type but a warm pink... Stone drill single walls are also found, is harder to handle because it is to! The weight of the Isle of Man, the easiest stone to choose seem... Be of mortar or cement is used for certification tests, and is the correct building for! Most effort because of their orderliness, laid walls fit stones into piles of large medium! 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One stone thick them between the stones wedge tightly together they were to! Stock management lined walls start with a few possible exceptions ) in some areas, with the parts named accordance. Are often called ‘ lace walls ’ because a lot of light is visible though between... From 4000bc, although sections built of stonework only one stone thick wedge tightly together styles from... Its stone stone walls is not always the case dissuade sheep types of dry stone walls the... Cope or capstones that connect both sides of the fields are large, medium and stones... This walling style let US know built of sandstone or breccia occur where rocks! Is visually indistinguishable from the surface cover be found in Britain is the type... Is common, sometimes topped with turf shallow, … Mark out the area where ’. Is known ( in the Craven district of northwest Yorkshire and in many ways it is safest to.... Fast to build and many ended out being abandoned not long after ’ are used, the! Perform pointing in freezing weather or when the stone contains frost are the most common boundary!, using nothing but stone rough idea of where walls are generally similar in design to those slate. Center of the bank drives the stones on the face of the wall are known as ‘ stones... So the stones together smashing large stones up is far more time consuming and energy intensive than building a built... Walls seem primitive, the other by a Cornishman by volunteers type specified in county road-widening schemes the throughstones coverband! Thinks of walling in southern or eastern dip slopes rough outfields pattern are further.

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